228, 13. He said he regretted allowing Muslim immigrants into Germany. Rev. Overall, the struggle was between the Holy Roman Empire, which was Roman Catholic and Habsburg, and a network of Protestant towns and principalities that relied on the chief anti-Catholic powers of Sweden and the United Netherlands, which had at last thrown off the yoke of Spain after a struggle lasting 80 years. Table 1. That much is almost a truism. Some estimates say Muslims will make up about 20% of the European population by 2050. 25, 237252. Schmid, A. P. (2014). Holy places as a. Atheism. In the U.S., the most recent FBI data show religion to be the second most targeted social category in hate crimes for the third year in a row. The Union of International Associations (UIA) is a research institute and documentation centre, based in Brussels. Pemetaan gerakan politik Islam radikal di Pantura Jawa Timur (the mapping of radical Muslims political movement in north coastal area of East Java). Sci. It may arise in the attempt to religiously . In this approach, extreme religious movements seek political power, to promote the adoption of their religious norms through laws or force. From the Bastile day attack at Nice, France to the Berlin Christmas Market Attack, according to Europol, 62 people were killed in Jihadist attacks in 2017, in 2018, the number was 13 and last year, it was 10. Another group (Laskar Jihad or Jihad Troops) demands comprehensive sharia and rejects democracy, but also rejects the revival of the Islamic state and Caliphate. Such conflict is harmful to the overall credibility of religion and may cause religious apathy or disintegration. Here, in the heartland of Europe, three denominations vied for dominance: Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism. Gibbs, J. O., and Crader, K. W. (1970). doi: 10.1080/095465591009395, Coyle, A., and Lyons, E. (2011). doi: 10.1207/s15327582ijpr0202_5, Arena, M. P., and Arrigo, B. The making of violent extremists. These terms are sometimes used interchangeably, and sometimes contested (e.g., religious fundamentalism may be used by some scholars to refer to a rigid interpretation of scriptures, in contrast to religious extremism which is often associated with a particular political agenda). (2016). Contributing to the deepening divide is also the lack of proper integration policies. Identifying religious extremism as multidimensional helps moving beyond labeling Muslims simply as liberal, extreme, progressive, moderate, or radical. doi: 10.1080/1369183x.2014.935307, Kruglanski, A., Jasko, K., Webber, D., Chernikova, M., and Molinario, E. (2018). Europe has seen a rise in Islamic terror between 2014 and 2016, there were several terror attacks inspired by the Islamic State. The treaty of October 24, 1648, comprehended the Holy Roman emperor Ferdinand III, the other German princes, France, and Sweden. All Rights Reserved. The Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential is a unique, experimental research work of the Union of International Associations. Understanding the multidimensionality of religion in the context of religious extremism will help in accurately depicting this phenomenon, and will facilitate understanding by scholars of the complex group processes associated with religious change, which have been neglected to date. These groups emphasized that the earthquake is a punishment from God to show disapproval of the politically different attitudes that are promoted by the political leader of the Island (Hasan, 2018). In an attempt to understand different forms of extremism more comprehensively, we compared these groups on the other three dimensions. Life satisfaction and religiosity in broad probability samples. Naturally, social and political dimensions of religion will often be inter-related, especially where groups seek political power to impose their socially extreme viewpoint. (2015). Gerakan salafiyah: Islam, politik, dan rigiditas interpretasi hukum Islam (the Salafi movement: Islam, politic, and the rigidity of the interpretation of Islamic law). doi: 10.1177/0022002714541853, Bergan, A., and McConatha, J. T. (2001). This was in stark contrast to his scholarly peers, many of whom pursued . We argue that the four dimensions of religious extremism (i.e., political, theological, ritual, and social) provide a useful framework to locate religious groups, which allows for a better understanding of the way in which their religion is expressed and, importantly, the way in which they aim to achieve religious goals by peaceful or less peaceful ways. We propose that intolerance of diversity in ritual practices distinguishes moderates from extreme religious groups on this dimension. Soc. KS3 Is religion a power for peace or does it cause conflict? Even though the four dimensions of religious extremism that we present here are informed by prior research on extremism and religiosity, the model that we developed is tailored to the context of Indonesian Muslims and their religious movements. In particular, social extremism in Indonesia is rarely linked to terror campaigns. Psychol. Social identity salience and the emergence of stereotype consensus. Unidimensional categorization of moderate vs. extremist lead to simplistic understandings whereby people with highly conservative beliefs in religion are associated with support for violence and terror. A similar model of religious extremism as the culmination of a trajectory of religious identity into group-based violence is put forward by Silber and Bhatt (2007). Available at: https://www.nahimunkar.org/apa-penyebab-gempa-bumi-dosa-maksiat-salah-satunya-akibat-merajalelanya-musik/ (Accessed February 26, 2019). The first stage of the Thirty Years War, the so-called Bohemian Revolt, began in 1618 and marked the beginning of a truly continental conflict. In fact, worldwide, religious-based conflict is on the rise. 2, 113133. doi: 10.1080/09546553.2010.496317, Osman, M. N. M. (2010b). UIAs decades of collected data on the enormous variety of association life provided a broad initial perspective on the myriad problems of humanity. One of Ferdinand IIs first actions was to force citizens of the empire to adhere to Roman Catholicism, even though religious freedom had been granted as part of the Peace of Augsburg. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! doi: 10.1177/009164711504300103, Chozin, M. A. When adopting this model in different or wider contexts (e.g., Islamic movements in Pakistan or Egypt, or Christian groups in the Philippines or Northern Ireland), researchers need to think carefully about the transferability of the model. In fact, Jerusalem is considered Holy Land to Muslims, Christians, and Jews. Personal. Belief in the groups claims and willingness to act based on the groups norms can overcome the actors rational choice perspectives. Reviving the caliphate in the Nusantara: Hizbut Tahrir Indonesias mobilization strategy and its impact in Indonesia. That year, Denmark-Norway took up arms again, this time fighting on the side of the Habsburgs and the Holy Roman Empire. 31, 107114. Research paper. In contrast, groups that are located at the extreme end of the theological continuum typically view God as a personal agent and embrace names for God that contain an authoritarian image (e.g., The Compeller, The Conqueror, etc.) In a similar vein, the group Hizb al-tahrir is extreme in its stance on the political dimension, as it aims to revive the Islamic empire by overthrowing the concept of the nation state (e.g., Ward, 2009; Osman, 2010b). Moreover, while religiosity has been linked to positive outcomes such as higher well-being (e.g., Carlucci et al., 2015) and life satisfaction (e.g., Bergan and McConatha, 2001), religious fundamentalism and extremism have been linked to more negative outcomes such as prejudice (Altemeyer and Hunsberger, 1992), hostility (Koopmans, 2015), or even armed conflict (Cornell, 2005). The ritual is contentious to those who feel that this Mandinga custom should be abandoned to keep Islam pure (Johnson, 2006). Interfaith dialogue is often developed by more moderate religious activists to strengthen inter-religious cooperation as a way to solve common problems (e.g., environmental issues, a cohesive national identity, economic issues, and law enforcement). Parveez, Z. F. (2017). Thirty Years War, (161848), in European history, a series of wars fought by various nations for various reasons, including religious, dynastic, territorial, and commercial rivalries. Religious Studies. According to Pew, in 2018 more than a quarter of the world's countries experienced a high incidence of hostilities motivated by religious hatred, mob violence related to religion, terrorism, and harassment of women for violating religious codes. A similar pattern may be observed among groups of Muslims who are identified as extreme in ritual dimensions. Personal. But ethnic/religious rivalries form the permanent framework within which the political economic and military conflicts can be justifies, inspired and exacerbated at any time for the purposes of territorial conflict, political interests and economic competitions. Many religious people believe that their religious rituals are guided directly by God. doi: 10.1007/s10964-012-9847-7, Ward, K. (2009). This backdrop of underlying causes stretches back over 1,000 years. All articles are regularly reviewed and updated by the HISTORY.com team. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. To illustrate the multiple dimensions of religious extremism, we focus on the context of Indonesian Muslim groups. Gen. Psychol. For instance, even though the Salafi movement has been generally identified as extremist (Haron and Hussin, 2013; Jones, 2014), to understand their extremism, we argue that it is important to be both mindful of the groups extreme position when considering theological and ritual dimensions, but also their comparatively moderate stand politically. The Thirty Years War was a 17th-century religious conflict fought primarily in central Europe. Other, more moderate groups, however, strive for an integration of religious values within the current political systems (e.g., democracy, national state, etc.). Some of them reject democracy, believing that democracy as a political system is incompatible with Islam (Fealy, 2004; Ward, 2009), that Islamic instructions about all matters relating to life are clearly articulated in the Quran and Hadith (the words, behaviors, and approvals of the prophet). Apa penyebab gempa bumi? The proportion of Muslims in the country, which was recorded as 14.25% in the 2011 census, is increasing year by year, and the government, dominated by Hindus, is unwilling to face up to this reality. Nevertheless, this group seems to be moderate in the ritual dimension. Thus, when the groups norm allows the use of non-normative tactics such as violence to gain their objectives, the individuals will intentionally commit violence on behalf of the group. Koopmans, R. (2015). Corrections? Yet, we would argue that the notions of good vs. bad religions, or even unidimensional and dichotomous categorizations of religiosity as moderate vs. extreme, do not do justice to the issues and lead to simplistic understandings whereby religious extremism is often only seen as a root cause of violence and terrorism. 41, 3357. To some extent, the Salafi movement labels the fellow Muslims who perform those rituals as idolatrous (Musyrik) or even infidels (Kafir). Available at: https://theconversation.com/who-exactly-are-radical-muslims-73098 (Accessed February 26, 2019). Importantly though, these movements do not use physical violence in their efforts, and they accept and participate in the political system in Indonesia. Interpreting extremism relative to these four dimensions provides new insights when examining the global issue of religious extremism and helps to better predict how religious extremism is expressed. Psychol. Religious wars: Many wars were fought in the past either to spread particular religions or destroy rival faiths. doi: 10.1080/10357710902895103, Webber, D., Babush, M., Schori-Eyal, N., Vazeou-Nieuwenhuis, A., Hettiarachchi, M., Belanger, J. J., et al. As some countries have modernized and industrialized, traditional religious values have often stood in stark contrast to the practices of migrant groups and tourists. We propose that the tendency to forcefully demand adherence to a narrow version of the in-groups norms typically results from feeling threatened by out-groups norms. (2015). Bigger than Ahok: explaining the 2 December mass rally. Wiktorowicz, Q. The United Netherlands was recognized as an independent republic. 43, 2333. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. (1968). Likewise, such attributions also dominated when explaining the 2018 earthquake in Lombok Island (Habdan and Baits, 2018). The Battle for God: Fundamentalism in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In addition to these different views regarding the place of religion in the state, groups of Muslim also differ in their support for democracy (e.g., Halla et al., 2013). We develop a model of religious extremism in theological, ritual, social, and political dimensions of religion based on the variety of Islamic groups in Indonesia. Soc. In the context of Indonesia, an active group called the Islamic Defenders Front (FPI) is one of many aiming to force the entire nation to follow one version of Islamic social norms (Arifianto, 2017). The peace was negotiated, from 1644, in the Westphalian towns of Mnster and Osnabrck. Who was the Holy Roman Emperor during the first half of the Thirty Years' War? Co-existence is a two-way street. To illustrate the importance of not just exploring the political dimension when understanding religious extremism, we took a closer look at some extremist Islamic movements in Indonesia (i.e., that score high in extremism on the political dimension). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Psychol. Radicalization in the west: The homegrown threat. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Specifically, while it is important to understand political violence among Indonesian Muslims in terms of views on sharia laws, in the Myanmar context, political extremism centers on views against minorities and their rights. The labels, of course, are psychologically painful for the labeled groups of Muslims. This was also the basis for selecting as extreme the current political movement Hizbut Tahrir and Islamic defender front (FPI) who have gained support after the reform of 1998 (Fealy, 2004; Muhtadi, 2009; Osman, 2010a). doi: 10.1163/157361211X594159, Moghaddam, F. (2005). Public Choice 155, 109137. (2013). We argue that this exercise enables a more nuanced and comprehensive understanding of religious extremism as presented in Table 1. Articles with the HISTORY.com Editors byline have been written or edited by the HISTORY.com editors, including Amanda Onion, Missy Sullivan, Matt Mullen and Christian Zapata. Soc. This often goes together with vigilance to protect the integrity of rituals, but also with intergroup tension whereby extreme groups accuse more moderate groups of being sinful in their practice. Religious fundamentalism and psychological well-being: an Italian study. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation. To understand peoples willingness to support violent political action, we therefore need to explore religious extremism on multiple dimensions and be open to the idea that not every form of religious extremism is associated with a willingness to achieve goals in violent ways. Our hope is that a more comprehensive understanding of religious extremism will facilitate better insight and nuanced dialogue. (2009). However, more extreme religious groups often actively reject this collaborative effort, as they perceive inter-religious dialogue as part of a conspiracy to weaken the faith in their religion. Despite this example of unity, it is also clear that there are many instances when relationships between moderate as well as more extreme religious groups are more tense. As for the immigrants, they too need to abide by the law of the land they live in. Terror. The country has well over 3,000 tribes and ethnic groups. With or without support for violent means of creating change, the advocacy toward comprehensive sharia law as well as the revival of an Islamic empire reflects a radical agenda to transform the current established political system. Problematic too is that such simplistic representations are consequential in that they determine the perception of extremist groups. In May 2023, Frontiers adopted a new reporting platform to be Counter 5 compliant, in line with industry standards. For instance, and also in the context of Buddhist violence, the terrorist sarin attack in the Tokyo subway in 1995 by the cult group Aum Shinrikyo was not so much driven by extremism on the political dimension, but by extremism on the theological and/or ritual dimension. Simon, B., Reichert, F., and Grabow, O. Is religious identity a social identity? Though the struggles of the Thirty Years War erupted some years earlier, the war is conventionally held to have begun in 1618, when the future Holy Roman emperor Ferdinand II attempted to impose Roman Catholic absolutism on his domains, and the Protestant nobles of both Bohemia and Austria rose up in rebellion. doi: 10.1174/021347409788041408, Johnson, M. C. (2006). The staircase to terrorism: a psychological exploration. Anal. 27, 117. Recently, we witnessed a surge in psychological research examining the role of religion in human life (e.g., Ysseldyk et al., 2010; Coyle and Lyons, 2011; Brambilla et al., 2016). Strategi dakwah salafi di Indonesia (The Salafis preaching strategy in Indonesia). They believe that political norms should be applied to change the current locally adapted political systems across many Muslim countries. Issues 69, 436454. Religious fundamentalism and hostility against out-groups: a comparison of Muslims and Christians in Western Europe. For example, religious extremists have been characterized by Sageman (2008) as seeking martyrdom, and fueled by anger regarding perceived injustice. However, those ritually extreme groups can conflict with each other when political differences are salient. Itwasestablishedin 1907, byHenri la Fontaine(Nobel Peace Prize laureate of 1913), andPaul Otlet, a founding father of what is nowcalled information science. We argue that our analysis will help to explain why, despite the perceived similarities that lead outsiders to cluster them together, extreme movements are often in conflict with one another over what it means to be a good religious person. New York: Knopf/HarperCollins. dosa, maksiat, salah satunya akibat merajalelanya musik (What does cause earthquake? Psychol. J. Pemikir. Extremism and Islamophobia are the two main reason behind this. Weakened by the fighting, for example, Spain lost its grip over Portugal and the Dutch republic. (2009). In this way, the latter groups perceive democracy as one way to manage national affairs that is not in conflict with Islam (Ward, 2009; Nurhayati, 2014). J. Soc. Religion 27, 127128. We, of course, support the prevention of violent extremism, but we also support the notion that being extreme in religious beliefs is not always linked to support for employing violent tactics (Austin, 2018). Similarly, Wiktorowicz (2005) proposed a four-stage model of extremism culminating in violence: first, a cognitive openness to new people or new ideas followed by the experiences of personal or group grievance (e.g., discrimination and oppression). Get HISTORYs most fascinating stories delivered to your inbox three times a week. Int. doi: 10.1482/84098. 114, 270285. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3270503. Perspect. Some groups have very little latitude in how they understand and practice their religious rituals and justify the other practices as forbidden innovation. Law 23, 485506. J. Cross-Cult. This brief essay focuses on the religious dimension of the conflict, which both historical and recent events suggest lies at its core. But after Ferdinands decree on religion, the Bohemian nobility in present-day Austria and the Czech Republic rejected Ferdinand II and showed their displeasure by throwing his representatives out of a window at Prague Castle in 1618. Over the first decade-plus of fighting, the Bohemian nobility formed alliances with the Protestant Union states in what is now Germany, while Ferdinand II sought the support of his Catholic nephew, King Phillip IV of Spain. The proof is on my palm: debating ethnicity, Islam and ritual in a new African diaspora. 44% of Germans see a 'fundamental contradiction between Islam and German culture and values. Relig. However, extremism in the theological dimension may also be related to a narrow interpretation of jihad as a core principle in Islam. Two years later, the Swedes re-entered the fray, further weakening Habsburg forces. For every dimension found in a particular context, the researchers should then explore what the indicators are of extremism compared to moderate beliefs. HISTORY.com works with a wide range of writers and editors to create accurate and informative content. Do you ever wonder why religious differences lead to conflict and violence? doi: 10.2307/3710060. Conflict between church and state or other conflict occurs in the Middle East and in Northern Ireland and Cyprus. Findings show that religious differences are a social cleavage more important than linguistic Radicalisation, de-radicalisation, counter-radicalisation: a conceptual discussion and literature review. German chancellor Angela Merkel warned against 'Islamic terrorism'. 13, 206209. 22, 107120. The research is also supported by an Australian Research Discovery grant (DP170101008) awarded to JJ. For example, many Salafy group members perceive that public protest is an illegitimate action according to Islam, while other groups who share their extreme identity on ritual dimension perceive it as legitimate tactic. Scholars would discover if these dimensions or others are relevant to differences between moderates and extremists (for example, if Buddhist groups who are more mystical are less likely to be extremist) through exploratory research and pilot testing. Bad religion? American piety: The nature of religious commitment. Austin, G. (2018). Popular unrest arising from religious differences has become increasingly commonplace in India over the last few decades. The label has a narrow pejorative meaning which too often associates extremism with terrorism (e.g., the Bali bombings, or the Paris attacks). Political Violence 17, 619639. G. T. Kurian (Hoboken, NJ: Blackwell Publishing). Its destructive campaigns and battles occurred over most of Europe, and, when it ended with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, the map of Europe had been irrevocably changed. However, at least initially, their armies were unable to make inroads against the forces of Ferdinand II, even after he died of old age in 1637. Homeland insecurity: How Arab American and Muslim American experience after 9/11. Ferdinand II, the Holy Roman emperor (161937) and the king of Bohemia, was the leading champion of the Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation and absolutist rule during the Thirty Year's War. allowing different religious interpretations and expanding the acceptance toward different patterns of norms. On the Indian sub-continent, where the Sikhs, Hindus and Moslems are involved in fratricidal blood-shed, the governments have not been able to mount a bulwark between rival religions and sects to prevent such conflict. doi: 10.1080/1047840X.2016.1082418, Haslam, S. A., Oakes, P. J., Reynolds, K. J., and Turner, J. C. (1999). Spain had lost not only the Netherlands but its dominant position in western Europe. Australian Strategic Policy Institute. This paper highlights that religious extremism is not a unified and ubiquitous phenomenon; rather, religious extremists differ on a number of dimensions in how they express their religion, and consequently, how they aim to achieve important group goals. 5 Timothy Fitzgerald argues that there is no coherent concept of religion; the term should be regarded as a form of mystification and scrapped. Religious conflict includes intolerance of other religions and discrimination against members of other religions, religious war, intellectual conflict and conflict between church and state. The way that religion and politics should relate has been a source of intense debate and struggle throughout history (Armstrong, 2000). The reason why their is conflict in the name of Religion is that the People are following secondary religions and assume their secondary religion as their identity! In France, for example, everyone is expected to adopt the French secular culture, French values and the French language. Religious fundamentalism: an empirically derived construct and measurement scale. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. With Emperor Ferdinand IIs ascension to head of state of the Holy Roman Empire in 1619, religious conflict began to foment. Psychol. Kohut, A., Doherty, C., and Wike, R. (2006). Intergroup processes include the categorization of in-groups and out-groups as reflected in Saroglous dimension of belonging, but also the specific group norms controlling relations to members of other faiths.
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